Mid-Tudor crisis?
The period 1536-1588 (the Mid-Tudor Period) witnessed changes in government, politics and religion but the intensity and influence of those changes has been a subject for debate.
Some historians argue that these changes were so radical and wide-ranging that they contributed to what has been termed a 'mid-Tudor crisis'. Others disagree with these comments and state that these changes occurred naturally and are changes which one would expect to have happened over a period spanning over 50 years.
However there is no doubt that if one compares England in 1588 to that in 1536 there are some stark differences:
- For the first time, the kingdom was governed by a female rather than male monarch
- The state religion had been transformed into Protestant as opposed to Roman Catholic
- The monastic system which had been in place for over 800 years no longer existed
- Spain had turned from an ally of England into its mortal enemy
- Rise of the bureaucrat e.g Thomas Cromwell and William Cecil
- Emergence of parliament as a more significant institution of government
Edward VI: the Somerset years 1547-1549
When Edward took over from his father Henry VIII, he was only 9 years old and therefore far too young to rule the country on his own, so Edward Seymour (Edward's uncle) took over control of the country until 1549. During this time the political situation deteriorated steadily. However historians often debate whether this was caused by Somerset's lack of ability or by the numberous difficulties which he had to overcome.
Three major problems were inherited from the policies of Henry VIII:
1. Religious Policy: Faced with the problem of whether the Church of England should remain essentially Roman Catholic or become more Protestant: Somerset inherited a divided church that lacked decisive leadership and a clear direction. Somerset and most members of the Regency Council were moderate reformers whereas Edward favoured more radical changes. However powerful politicians such as the Duke of Norfolk and Bishop Gardiner were opposed to change and therefore such differences only increased the in-fighting among political factions.
2. Foreign Policy: Faced with the problem of whether the war started with France and Scotland by Henry VIII in 1542 should be continued or stopped. Henry had hoped this war would secure the marriage of Edward VI and Mary, Queen of Scots. Although the government was already bankrupt, Somerset continued the war and therefore further crippled the country's finances. Somerset also continued policy of keeping on good terms with Charles V (the ruler of Spain and the Holy Roman Empire) for fear of provoking him into war.
3.Economic Policy: Faced with the problem of whether the economy which had been neglected by Henry VIII be reformed or left to repair itself. Somerset inheirted an English economy that was in a very weak condition. Population levels had been increasing rapidly since the 1530s, causing prices to rise and making it difficult for young people to find work. The problem was made worse by fall in demand for English textiles abroad which in turn lead to unemployment among cloth workers. By 1549 there was widespread discontent among the mass of the population, leading to large-scale uprisings in Norfolk and the West Country. Even though the rebeillons were easily suppressed, Somerset's enemies on the council seized the opportunity to overthrow him and take power.
Edward VI: the Nortumberland years 1550-3
John Dudley, the Earl of Warwick took power from Somerset in 1550 and was quickly made Duke of Northumberland and Lord President of the Council. While Northumberland seems to have adopted more practical policies than Somerset there is some debate over whether or not he was any more successful in overcoming the problems that faced the country.
Although the popular discontent had subdued, Northumberland still faced the same problems as his predecessor:
1. Foreign Policy: Somerset's fall from power caused a temporary breakdown in military leadership. This enabled the French to gain initiative in the war and they went on the offensive. This combined with the lack of money, forced Northumberland to make peace with France and Scotland which annoyed many of the ruling elite who thought it was a humiliating climb-down.
2. Religious Policy: Northumberland allowed increasingly radical reforms to be introduced into the Church of England (probably to secure the support of Edward VI). This move however angered Catholics at home as well as Emperor Charles V (England's major continental ally) who was an active supporter of the Roman Catholic Church.
3. Economic Policy: Northumberland had learnt from Somerset's mistakes and therefore introduced measures to try to restore stability. The Privy Counil and government was reorganised, finances were reformed and debts created by the war began to be paid off. Although the economic situations continued to worsen, poor laws were introduced to help the poorest sections of society.
Whether Northumberland would have succeeded in establishing firmly in power is a matter of speculation because Edward died in 1553. This also left England with an immediate constitutional crisis. Mary (the daughter of Henry VIII's first wife Catherine of Aragon) was to succeed Edward if died childless, however she was a devout Roman Catholic and it was therefore feared that she would restore the authority of the pope and so end the Royal Supremacy over the Church of England. Thus in order to avoid these changes, Northumberland made sure that Mary and Elizabeth were disinherited so that Lady Jane Grey (Protestant Granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary) could become queen and hence prevent a change of religion in England. However the reign of Lady Jane Grey only lasted 9 days due to the unpopularity of her rule and quite quickly Mary I became queen.
Mary Tudor 1553-8
Until quite recently historians dismissed Mary as lacking political experience and leadership qualities. In addition she was accused of being over-zealous in her support of Roman Catholicism and Spain. (Two things which made her widely unpopular by the end of her reign).
However most historians now suggest that her reign was not altogether disastrous and that, but for her early death, her policies might have succeeded.
Her two main objectives during her reign were:
1) to return England to Roman Catholicism
2) to create closer links with the Habsburgs (her mother's family) headed by the Roman Holy Emperor Charles V.
Creating Closer links with Habsburgs
Before Mary could achieve her primary objective of returning England to Roman Catholicism, she first had to secure an alliance with the most influential ruling Catholic family in Europe: the Habsburgs. She believed by doing this, that she would strengthen her religious position at home and abroad. Therefore to do this she proposed to marry Charles V's son, Phillip II of Spain. Although the parliament and council reluctantly agreed to the marriage, there was increasing opposition to the proposal especially from the ruling elites who feared England would be dominated by Spain and drawn into the Habsburgs wars against France.
Returning England to Roman Catholicism
With the Habsburgs alliance secured, Mary began the task of restoring the Church of England to Roman Catholicism.
In the first year of her reign, parliament agreed to repeal and therefore ignore all Protestant legislation passed under Edward. Many of the ruling elites disliked this: some didn't like the fact that the royal supremacy over church would be ended, while others feared that they might have to return church lands which had been sold off to ruling elites during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI.
In the end, Mary had to compromise and although papal authority was restored, no attempt was made to reclaim any church lands that had been sold. At the same time, the Marian government (Mary I's government) began another round of financial reform to reduce costs and increase revenues and initiated a thorough review of navy.
Before any benefits could be gained from these reforms the reign was overtaken by events. The persecution and execution of Protestants made Mary increasingly unpopular with all levels of society. Popular discontent was made worse by steadily worsening economic situations and rising unemployment. Anti-Spanish feelings rose due to Phillip invading England because of his war with France which went back on promises he had previously made. As a result, Calais (England's last continental possession) was lost to the French.
Mary died in 1558 and was replaced by her younger sister Elizabeth I, who was to become the last Tudor monarch.
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